Theories and Theoretical Traditions!

As understood from the two previous posts, the classical founders of Sociology adopted different approaches to their studies. These three basic differences have persisted throughout the history of sociology developing into three broad sociological traditions:

Functionalism: (Durkheim)

Functionalism (or structural functionalism) is a perspective in sociology according to which society is a complex system whose various parts work together to produce and ensure stability and that sociology should investigate their relationships. Comte and Durkheim, have often used an organic analogy, comparing the operation of society to a living organism. They argue that parts of society work together, just as various parts of the human body, to study a bodily organ, such as the heart, we need to show how it relates to other parts of the body. By pumping blood around the body, the heart plays a vital role in the continuation of the life of the organism. 

For example, analyzing the function of a social institution such as the education system means showing the part it plays in the smooth coarse running of a society.

Functionalism foregrounds the importance of moral consensus in sustaining order and stability.

Moral consensus exists when most people in a society share the same values. For example, Durkheim argued that religious beliefs reaffirm people’s commitment to core social values, thereby granting the maintenance of social cohesion.

Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) on his particularly influential versions of functionalism:

Manifest Functions: These are the recognized (manifested) functions and types of social 

activities generally having a positive effect on society.

Latent Functions: These are consequences of that activity of which those participating are unaware of. Merton goes on to explain the rain dance performed by the Hopi Tribe of Arizona and New Mexico. 

The Hopi believe that this ceremony will bring the rain they need for their crops. (this is a manifest function) But this dance, Merton argued, also had the effect of encouraging group cohesion of this particular society (Hopi ‘a sub culture’. A latent function.)

A major part of sociological explanations, Merton says, consist of uncovering the latent functions of intentional social activities and institutions. 

Merton also distinguishes between functions and dysfunctions. 

For example, it is wrong to see Religion as always functional.

When religious groups disagree with one another, it could result into major conflict and lead to widespread social destruction. Though it isn’t true of Merton, many functionalist thinkers focused on stability and order, taking for granted social divisions and inequalities based on factors such as gender,class and ethnicity.

Conflict theory: (Marx)

Like functionalists, sociologists using conflict theories emphasize on the importance of social structures and they advance a comprehensive ‘model’ on how the world works.

Nonetheless, conflict theorists reject functionalism’s emphasis on consensus. Instead, they draw attention to the importance of divisions in society and, in doing so, concentrate on power, inequality and competitive struggle. They see society composed of distinct groups, each in pursuit of its own interests, meaning the potential of conflict is always contemporary. Conflict theorists investigate the tensions between dominant and disadvantaged groups, looking to understand how relationships of pure control are established and maintained. 

Marx and Marxist approaches have been highly influential in conflict theory; however, it is of importance to note that not all conflict theories are Marxist.

Feminism, for example, is a form of conflict theory which focuses on gender inequality.

The unequal conditions and cases that exist in which men and women are subject to in most societies as male domination persists even to this day.

As a conflict perspective, Feminism signifies the need of attention to issues that sociologists have previously ignored or taken lightly into consideration.

Particularly, feminist research and theorizing look at the micro as well as macro world of large structures. They have studied unequal gender relations in domestic situations and other ‘private’ affairs of life (such as sexual relations) . The conflict tradition has benefited from feminist research and theorizing (combining macro and micro-level studies have shown evidence of structured inequality can be found in the private spheres of social life just as much as in its large social structures.

Interactionist: (Weber)

Weber’s social action approach inspired many ‘interactionist’ forms of sociology. One of the most influential has been symbolic interactionism, which also owes much to American social philosopher George Herbert (1863-1931).

Mead argues that language allows us to become self-conscious beings-aware of our own individuality and able to see ourselves ‘as others see us’. Key element in this process is the symbol. A symbol is something that stands for something else. For example, words that refer to objects are symbols which represent what we mean. Non-verbal gestures and forms of communication are also symbols. (waving at someone or making a rude gesture both have symbolic value.)

Sociologists influenced by symbolic interactionism often focus on face-to-face interactions in the context of everyday life. The stress the role interactions play in creating society and its institutions. Max Weber was an important indirect influence on this theoretical approach because, although he acknowledged the existence of social structures, he held that these were created through the actions of individuals.

Arlie Hochschild’s (1983) The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling talks about observed training sessions and carried out interviews at Delta Airlines’ Stewardess Training Centre in Atlanta, USA and recalled the comments of one instructor, a pilot: ‘Now girls, I want you to go out there and really smile. Your smile is your biggest asset. I want you to go out there and use it. Smile. Really smile. Really lay it on.’

Her research found that, as western economies have become increasingly based on delivery  of services, the emotional style of the work we do needs to be understood. She calls his training ‘emotional labour’ (A labour that requires the management of feelings in order to create a publicly observable and acceptable facial and bodily display.) According to Hochschild, companies that provide services increasingly lay claim not only to workers’ physical activity but also to their presentation of emotions.

This research considered as an aspect of life that most people took for granted and showed that sociology could deepen our understanding of it. Hochschild found that often times service workers feel a sense of alienation from the particular aspect given up in work. They feel distant from their actual emotions.

Notes-

Micro Sociology

Concerns the nature of everyday human social interactions (face to face)

Looks to small-scale interactions between individuals.

Macro Sociology

Emphasizes the analysis of social systems and populations on a large scale

Looks to large-scale interactions such as social stability and change.

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